Human Biology 2025 May / June

Cells and tissues

Cell ultrastructure, DNA structure and replication, protein synthesis, mitosis, stem cells, tissue and organ organisation, genetic engineering.

Biological molecules

Structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids; food tests (Benedict's, iodine, Biuret); enzyme action and kinetics; immobilised enzymes.

Movement of substances in and out of cells

Diffusion, osmosis and water potential, active transport, surface area to volume ratio.

Bones, muscles and joints

Axial and appendicular skeleton, bone structure, synovial joints, antagonistic muscle action, osteoporosis.

Coordination

Nervous system, nerve impulses and synapses, reflex arc, endocrine system, eye, ear, drugs and their effects, mental illness, neurodegenerative diseases.

Nutrition and energy

Balanced diet, deficiency diseases, digestive system, enzymes in digestion, absorption in small intestine, dental health, obesity.

Respiration

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration, ATP and energy transfer, oxygen debt.

Gas exchange

Ventilation mechanism, gas exchange in alveoli, lung volumes, exercise and cardiovascular response, effects of smoking.

Internal transport

Blood composition, blood vessels, heart structure and function, cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, monoclonal antibodies.

Homeostatic mechanisms

Homeostasis and negative feedback, temperature regulation, kidney structure and function, osmoregulation, blood glucose regulation, liver.

Reproduction and heredity

Meiosis, reproductive systems, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, contraception, IVF, genetics and inheritance, inherited conditions, gene therapy.

Health, disease and immunity

Types of disease, pathogens, disease transmission, immune response, phagocytosis, antibodies, vaccination, antibiotics and resistance, cancer.